Who Am I and If So How Many? (34 page)

12
‘What is your aim in philosophy?’
Ibid., p. 103e.

13
The new discipline of analytical philosophy
For an introduction to analytical philosophy, see Hans-Johann Glock,
What Is Analytic Philosophy?
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

14
John Langshaw Austin … John Rogers Searle
J. L. Austin’s major work is
How to Do Things with Words
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1976). John R. Searle’s major work is
Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970).

15
‘If a lion could talk’
Wittgenstein,
Philosophical Investigations,
p. 223e.

1
Rousseau was a true eccentric
On Rousseau’s life, see Leo Damrosch,
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius
(New York: Mariner Books, 2007).

2
‘I fell across the question’
Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
The Confessions and Correspondence, Including the Letters to Malesherbes,
vol. 5 of
The Collected Writings of Rousseau,
trans. Christopher Kelly (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1990), p. 575.

3
‘Men are wicked’
This quote comes from Rousseau’s
Discourse on Inequality,
in Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
The Discourse and Other Early Political Writings,
trans. Victor Gourevitch (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 197–98.

4
Its founder was Robert Weiss
Robert Weiss published the results of his loneliness research in the modern classic
Loneliness: The Experience of Emotional and Social Isolation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975).

1
Three adults lunged
The story of Fawn is told by Frans de Waal in
Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 45f. See also de Waal’s
Chimpanzee Politics,
25th anniv. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).

2
revealed the astonishing extent
On the social behavior of primates, see also Frans de Waal,
Peacemaking Among Primates
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990).

3
Darwin’s mid-nineteenth-century proof
A purely Darwinist view of evolution is offered by Robert Wright,
The Moral Animal: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology
(New York: Pantheon Books, 1994).

4
‘The ethical progress of society’
Thomas Henry Huxley,
Evolution and Ethics
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), p. 141.

5
‘sword forged by
Homo sapiens
’
De Waal,
Good Natured,
p. 2.

1
‘Two things … fill the mind’
Immanuel Kant,
Critique of Practical
Reason
, trans. Lewis White Beck (New York: Macmillan, 1993), p. 169.

2
‘The understanding … does not draw’
Immanuel Kant,
Prolegomena
to Any Future Metaphysics,
trans. Gary Hatfield (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 73–74.

3
the Italian philosopher Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola,
On the Dignity of Man,
trans. Paul J. W. Miller et al. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1998).

4
‘schematism of our understanding’
Immanuel Kant,
Critique of Pure Reason,
trans. Norman Kemp Smith (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 183. For background information about Kant, see Manfred Kuehn,
Kant: A Biography
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

1
Arthur Schopenhauer
On Schopenhauer’s life, see Rüdiger Safranski,
Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy,
trans. Ewald Osers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).

2
‘What opposes the heart’
Arthur Schopenhauer,
The World as Will and Representation,
trans. E.F.J. Payne (New York: Dover, 1966), p. 218.

3
‘thousands of years of philosophizing’
Ibid., p. 199.

4
‘fundamental error of all philosophers’
Ibid., p. 206.

5
he experimented on several patients
Libet’s experiments are described and interpreted in Benjamin Libet,
Mind Time: The Temporal Factor in Consciousness
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005). On the recent debate about the freedom of the will, see Christian Geyer, ed.,
Hirnforschung und Willsfreiheit: Zur Deutung der neuesten Experimente
(Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2005); Helmut Fink, ed.,
Freier Wille – frommer Wunsch?
(Paderborn: Mentis-Verlag, 2006); and Michael Pauen,
Illusion
Freiheit? Mögliche und unmögliche Konsequenzen der Hirnforschung
(Frankfurt: S. Fischer, 2006). The two most influential German neuroscientists on the subject of the freedom of the will are Gerhard Roth (coauthor, with Klaus-Jürgen Grün),
Das Gehirn und seine Freiheit
(Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2006), and Wolf Singer,
Ein neues Menschenbild? Gespräche über Hirnforschung
(Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2003), esp. pp. 24–34.

1
September 13, 1848
For a detailed account of the life of Phineas Gage, see Malcolm MacMillan,
An Odd Kind of Fame: Stories of Phineas Gage
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000). See also John Fleischman,
Phineas
Gage: A Gruesome but True Story About Brain Science
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002).

2
neuroscientists Hanna and Antonio Damasio
The Damasios’ research and conclusions are found in Antonio R. Damasio, Descartes’ Error:
Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain
(New York: Putnam, 1994), and Hanna Damasio et al., ‘The Return of Phineas Gage: Clues About the Brain from the Skull of a Famous Patient,’
Science
264, no. 5102 (May 20, 1994), pp. 1102–5.

3
‘it is as if the moral compass’
De Waal,
Good Natured,
p. 217.

4
‘a machine that tells you’
Tove Jansson,
Finn Family Moomint roll,
trans. Elizabeth Portch (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1958), p. 167.

1
Rizzolatti has been examining the function of neurons
See Giacomo Rizzolatti and Corrado Sinigaglia,
Mirrors in the Brain: How Our Minds Share Actions, Emotion, and Experience,
trans. Frances Anderson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). An earlier book on this subject is Maksim I. Stamenov and Vittorio Gallese,
Mirror Neurons and the Evolution of Brain and Language
(Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2002).

1
Harvard psychologist Marc Hauser
Marc D. Hauser,
Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of Right and Wrong
(New York: HarperCollins, 2006).

2
the origin of our morality
The development of moral feelings is also explained in Frans de Waal,
Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), and in his
Our Inner Ape: A Leading Primatologist Explains Why We Are Who We Are
(New York: Riverhead, 2006).

3
‘Moral progress is a matter of wider and wider sympathy’
Richard Rorty,
Philosophy and Social Hope
(New York: Penguin, 2000), pp. 82–83.

1
Jeremy Bentham was born in 1748
The classic biography of Bentham, written in 1905, is Charles Milner Atkinson,
Jeremy Bentham: His Life and Work
(Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2009). A more recent collection of Bentham’s writings, with an introduction by Ross Harrison, is
Selected Writings on Utilitarianism
(Ware, UK: Wordsworth, 2001). John Bowring edited Bentham’s complete works in eleven volumes:
The Works of Jeremy Bentham
(Edinburgh: W. Tait, 1843).

1
Imagine the following situation
The example with the violinist originated in Judith Jarvis Thomson, ‘A Defense of Abortion,’
Philosophy and Public Affairs
1, no. 1 (Fall 1971), pp. 47–66. My example draws on the variant by Peter Singer in his
Practical Ethics,
2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 146–47.

2
Kant writes that the embryo is a being
Kant’s ideas about the freedom of children conceived in wedlock can be found in paragraph 28 (‘On the Right of Domestic Society, Title 2, Parental Rights’) of part 1 of the ‘Doctrine of Right’ of his
Metaphysics of Morals,
trans. Mary Gregor (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 64. His ideas about infanticide are in the same text, in part 2, near the conclusion of section E (‘On the Right to Punish and to Grant Clemency’), p. 109.

3
‘Better to be Socrates dissatisfied’
John Stuart Mill,
Utilitarianism and Other Essays
(New York: Penguin, 1987), p. 281. On the historical background, see Robert Jütte,
Geschichte der Abtreibung: Von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart
(Munich: Beck, 1993). For an overview of utilitarian arguments, see also Norbert Hoerster,
Ethik und Interesse
(Stuttgart: Reclam, 2003).

1
‘Warnemünde is a cheerful place’
Beate Lakotta recounts the story of Alexander Nicht in
Der Spiegel,
no. 46 (November 13, 2006).

2
The major argument
On the euthanasia discussion from the perspective of an advocate, see Norbert Hoerster,
Sterbehilfe im säkularen Staat
(Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1998), and Singer,
Practical Ethics,
pp. 127–57. Günter Altner presents an opposing view in
Leben in der Hand des Menschen: Die Brisanz des biotechnischen Fortschritts
(Primus, 1998), esp. pp. 225–78.

1
In the fall of 1970
Peter Singer,
Animal Liberation
(New York: Harper, 2001). See also Peter Singer, ed.,
In Defense of Animals
(New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2009).

2
‘The day
may
come’
Jeremy Bentham,
An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,
ed. J. H. Burns and H.L.A. Hart (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 283.

3
Singer’s book on liberating animals
The second important father of animal rights philosophy is Tom Regan,
The Case for Animal Rights
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983). On the question of eating meat, see Michael Pollan,
The Omnivore’s Dilemma
(New York: Penguin, 2007), and Jonathan Safran Foer,
Eating Animals
(New York: Little, Brown, 2009). See also Richard David Precht,
Noahs Erbe: Vom Recht der Tiere und den Grenzen des Menschen
(Hamburg: Rowohlt, 2000). Issues of
consciousness and animal ethics are examined by David DeGrazia,
Taking Animals Seriously: Mental Life and Moral Status
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

4
a now classic essay
The essay by Thomas Nagel, ‘What Is It Like to Be a Bat?’ was first published in
Philosophical Review
83, no. 4 (October 1974), pp. 435–50, and can also be read online at
evans-experientialism
.freewebspace.com/nagel.htm.

5
‘We don’t know’
Giacomo Rizzolatti’s comment about barking is taken from www.infonautik.de/rizzolatti.htm.

1
‘Jerom died on February 13’
Steven Wise,
Rattling the Cage
(New York: Perseus Publishing, 2001), p. 1.

2
a movement initiated by Peter Singer
Peter Singer and Paola Cavalieri, eds.,
The Great Ape Project: Equality Beyond Humanity
(New York: St Martin’s Griffin, 1994). For an opposing view, see Claudia Heinzelmann,
Der Gleichheitsdiskurs in der Tierrechtdebatte: Eine kritische Analyse von Peter Singers Forderung nach Menschen rechten für Grosse Menschenaffen
(Stuttgart: Ibidem, 1999).

3
he was not entirely wrong
On the close relationship between primates and humans, see Jared Diamond,
The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal
(New York: Harper, 2006); the quotation about ‘future taxonomists’ is on p. 23.

4
Japanese ethologists
For animal and ape intelligence, see Donald R. Griffin,
Animal Thinking
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985).

5
‘Now we must redefine tool’
This telegram is quoted at www.janegoodall.org/janes-story.

6
a bonobo named Kanzi
On feats of intelligence demonstrated by Kanzi and other primates, see Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and Roger Lewin,
Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind
(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 1996).

7
Koko, a female gorilla
Francine Patterson’s experiments with Koko are recorded on Koko’s website, www.koko.org, and described in detail in Francine Patterson and Eugene Linden,
The Education of Koko
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981); the examples cited here are on pp. 185, 151, and 191.